Little Tolerance for Zero Tolerance PoliciesZero tolerance policies leave no room for error but in many cases, the policies themselves show flaws. University of Delaware researcher Dariel Janerette compared how zero tolerance policies are implemented nationwide. Janerette found systems where teachers feel powerless and students, disproportionately minority and special needs, too often end up incarcerated.
Janerette’s work gives school districts questions to ponder including:
What effects are zero tolerance policies having on student achievement?
What are the benefits of these policies as compared to their costs?
What can states do to support professional development for teachers to enable them?
Read the whole Policy Brief at http://tinyurl.com/zerotoleranceinschools
Caffeine-Drinking Teens Don’t Get Enough SleepFueled by caffeine teens are up late at night, and they aren’t just focusing on homework. Web surfing, text messaging and gaming are keeping them up for hours into the night, according to a recent study by Drexel University’s Dr. Christina Calamaro, assistant professor in Drexel’s College of Nursing and Health Professions.
The study “Adolescents Living 24/7 Lifestyle: Effects of Caffeine and Technology on Sleep Duration and Daytime Functioning,” found that the more multitasking a teen did, the more likely the teen would be dozing off during the day. The findings were published in Pediatrics, the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics.
Calamaro and researchers (Mason B. Thornton and Sarah Ratcliffe) asked 100 middle and high school students aged 12 to 18 to complete a questionnaire to measure nighttime intake of caffeinated drinks, use of media-related technology and sleep patterns. The majority of the sample used some form of technology, with 66 percent having a television in their bedroom, 30 percent a computer, 90 percent a cell phone and 79 percent an MP3 digital audio player.
The researchers found that 20 percent of those studied got the recommended eight or more hours of sleep during school nights with the rest getting less than eight hours. The average sleep for U.S. adolescents is seven hours, according to Calamaro. At least 30 percent of teenagers reported falling asleep during school. Caffeine consumption tended to be 76 percent higher among those who fell asleep. Most teenagers used multiple electronic media late into the night and consumed a variety of caffeinated beverages, including many popular energy drinks marketed to their age group, said Calamaro.
To gauge how heavily the study participants used technology at night, Calamaro and her team developed a measure they call “multitasking index.” The index took the total amount of hours a teen spent doing each of nine different activities—ranging from watching TV, listening to MP3s, watching DVDs, surfing the web and doing homework—and divided that by nine or the number of hours between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. The index was significantly related to falling asleep during school and difficulties falling asleep on weeknights.
“Many adolescents used multiple forms of technology late into the night and concurrently consumed caffeinated beverages,” said Calamaro. “Their ability to stay alert and fully functional throughout the day was impaired by excessive daytime sleepiness.”
At least 85 percent of those studied reported drinking caffeine. For those, the average caffeine intake was 144 mg with a range from 23 to1458 mg. Only 27.5 percent consumed less than 100 mg of caffeine daily or the equivalent of drinking a single espresso, whereas 11.2 percent drank more than 400 mg daily or the equivalent of four espressos.
Although caffeine consumption tended to be lower for the 20 percent that slept for eight to 10 hours on a school night, it wasn’t enough to merit statistical significance. Sleep was significantly related to multitasking. Teenagers getting eight to 10 hours of sleep had lower multitasking indexes; those getting six to eight had higher multitasking indexes. At least 33 percent of the teenagers reported falling asleep at least twice during school hours.
Regardless of socioeconomic status, teenagers tasked on average four activities late into the night, according to Calamaro.
“Even though we know adolescents are on a different time schedule than adults, we still need to get them less wired at night,” she said. “Parents need to discourage teenagers from drinking caffeine past noon time and keep TVs, computers and especially cell phones out of kids’ bedrooms.”
Gains Seen from School-Wide Positive Behavior SupportTwo University of Oregon-led studies provide insights on a fast-growing positive-reinforcement behavioral program for improving the social and academic outcomes for schools.
Both studies on School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) appeared in the July issue of the Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions.
The first study reports that, in addition to safer environments, third-graders in elementary schools in Illinois and Hawaii elementary that use SWPBS increased their mastery of state reading assessments compared to students in control schools. Researchers, however, cautioned that academic gains were not a result of just improving the behavior support in these schools; such improvement like came from the new behavioral approach coupled with effective instruction.
The second study, looking at high-school adoption of SWPBS, found that high-school teachers were suspicious of any new approach to behavior support. The results suggest that strong buy-in and commitment from administrators -- and possibly from students -- are needed for successful implementation.
More than 9,000 schools in 44 states -- including more than 1,000 schools in Illinois alone -- have or are in the process of implementing SWPBS, said Robert H. Horner, a UO professor of special education and lead author on the study of elementary schools. More than 800 high schools currently are engaged in its implementation.
SWPBS initially was developed by George Sugai in the early 1990s when he was on the faculty of the UO College of Education. Sugai now holds an endowed College of Education chair at the University of Connecticut. Horner and Sugai now share the lead in the National Technical Assistance Center on SWPBS, a five-year, multi-institutional program funded by the U.S. Office of Special Education designed to foster positive behavior in the nation's schools.
Evaluations of SWPBIS so far have found that schools adopting it have seen 20-60 percent reductions in discipline referrals, fewer suspensions and expulsions and reduced referrals of students to special education, Horner said.
"The fundamental message from this research is that schools become effective learning environments not only through attention to quality curriculum and instruction, but also by creating a school-wide culture that is predictable, consistent, positive and safe," Horner said. "Investing in the social behavior of students is central to achieving academic gains."
The study on high-school implementation was led by K. Brigid Flannery, also a UO professor of special education, who teamed with Sugai and Cynthia M. Anderson, a UO professor of school psychology. They surveyed 43 implementation-team leaders in 12 states -- most had been involved in their projects for at least one year but less than three years.
Understanding the challenges to implementation is important as more high schools begin to move in this direction, Flannery said, noting the complexities involved at the high-school level, where set-up teams must draw from representatives from multiple departments and faculties.
Researchers found that barely 50 percent of faculty members were supportive of SWPBS and that actual participation by teachers was even lower. Previous research by Sugai and Horner had found that a minimum of 80 percent support by teachers was necessary for successful implementation. Among reasons for resistance was a feeling that appropriate behavior was expected by high-school students and that rewards were not necessary.
Flannery says the research suggests that leadership teams at the high-school level may need to be larger and draw from the departmental infrastructure when building implementation teams. "More time is needed for high schools to secure faculty support and develop strategies to break down barriers to increase support," she said. Part of that strategy, she noted, needs to be aimed at getting staff to acknowledge student behaviors in addition to their academic prowess.
Flannery's team also concluded that while student participation may not be needed in the implementation process in lower schools levels, such representation in high schools may be critical. The researchers cautioned that the study's results should be considered preliminary because they did not include a control group and their sample size was small.
"We do feel that our results may be useful to high schools implementing or considering SWPBS," Flannery said. "Our findings suggest that more time is needed up front to lay the groundwork for its implementation so that buy-in can be realized from students, staff and administrators."
Study Finds that Good Teaching can be Enhanced with New Technology
Analysis of Controlled Studies Shows Online Learning Enhances Classroom Instruction
Providing further evidence of the tremendous opportunity to use technology to improve teaching and learning, the U.S. Department of Education today released an analysis of controlled studies comparing online and face-to-face instruction.
A systematic search of the research literature from 1996 through July 2008 identified over 1,000 empirical studies of online learning. Of these, 46 met the high bar for quality that was required for the studies to be included in the analysis. The meta analysis showed that “blended” instruction – combining elements of online and face-to-face instruction – had a larger advantage relative to purely face to face instruction or instruction conducted wholly online. The analysis also showed that the instruction conducted wholly on line was more effective in improving student achievement than the purely face to face instruction. In addition, the report noted that the blended conditions often included additional learning time and instructional elements not received by students in control conditions.
“This new report reinforces that effective teachers need to incorporate digital content into everyday classes and consider open-source learning management systems, which have proven cost effective in school districts and colleges nationwide,” said U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan. “We must take advantage of this historic opportunity to use American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds to bring broadband access and online learning to more communities.
“To avoid being caught short when stimulus money runs out, school officials should use the short-term federal funding to make immediate upgrades to technology to enhance classroom instruction and to improve the tracking of student data,” Duncan added. “Technology presents a huge opportunity that can be leveraged in rural communities and inner-city urban settings, particularly in subjects where there is a shortage of highly qualified teachers. At the same time, good teachers can utilize new technology to accelerate learning and provide extended learning opportunities for students.”
Few rigorous research studies have been published on the effectiveness of online learning for K-12 students. The systematic search found just five experimental or controlled quasi-experimental studies comparing the learning effects of online versus face-to-face instruction for K-12 students. For this reason, caution is required in generalizing the study’s findings to the K-12 population because the results are for the most part based on studies in other settings, such as in medical, career, military training, and higher education.
“Studies of earlier generations of distance and online learning courses have concluded that they are usually as effective as classroom-based instruction,” said Marshall “Mike” Smith, a Senior Counselor to the secretary. “The studies of more recent online instruction included in this meta-analysis found that, on average, online learning, at the post-secondary level, is not just as good as but more effective than conventional face-to-face instruction..”
The study was conducted by the Center for Technology and Learning, SRI International under contract to the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Policy and Program Studies Service, which commissioned the study.
The full report can be found at http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/opepd/ppss/reports.html#edtech.
Reducing Stereotype Threat in Classrooms: A Review of Social-Psychological Intervention Studies on Improving the Achievement of Black StudentsStereotype threat arises from a fear among members of a group of reinforcing negative stereotypes about the intellectual ability of the group. The report identifies three randomized controlled trial studies that use classroom-based strategies to reduce stereotype threat and improve the academic performance of Black students, narrowing their achievement gap with White students.
This review located and summarized the findings of randomized controlled trial stuies on classroom-based social-lpsychological interventions aimed at reducing the experience of stereotype threat that might otherwise lead some Black students to underperform on difficult academic tasks or tests. Reducing the achievement gap between Black and White students is a critical goal for states, districts, and schools. Experimental research on both inducing and reducing stereotype threat can inform discussions of strategies.
Some students may perform below their potential because of the stress of being under constant evaluation in the classroom. Black students, however, may experience another source of stress in addition to this general one (which they share with their nonminority peers). This second source of stress is specific to negatively stereotyped groups. It arises from a fear of reinforcing negative stereotypes about the intellectual ability of their racial group. Because Black students must contend with two sources of stress rather than one, their performance may be suppressed relative to that of their nonminority peers.
A systematic search was conducted for empirical studies of classroom-based social psychological interventions designed to reduce stereotype threat and thus improve the academic performance of Black students. After applying relevant inclusion criteria for topical and sample relevance, three experimental studies were identified.
The three studies found positive impacts on the academic performance of Black students for the following social-psychological strategies: Reinforce for students the idea that intelligence is expandable and, like a muscle, grows stronger when worked. students that their difficulties inschool are often part of a normal learning curve or adjustment process, rather than something unique to them or their racial group. Help students reflect on other values intheir lives beyond school that are sources of selfworth for them.
These three experiments are not an exhaustive list of the interventions to consider in reducing the racial achievement gap, nor are they silver bullets for improving the academic performance of Black students. Rather, they present scientific evidence suggesting that such strategies might reduce the level of socialpsychological threat that some Black students might otherwise feel in academic performance situations. It is important to note that while the strategies use established procedures that can be emulated by teachers and administrators, they also require thought and care on the part of schools and teachers in applying them in their particular situations.
Complete report:
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/southeast/pdf/REL_2009076.pdf
Mom, School’s Making Me Sick!With summer ending and school about to get underway, parents are transitioning from hearing their children moan about not being able to swim everyday, to hearing their child complain about homework, their new teachers or being in a different class than their friends. Many parents also begin to hear more complaints of tummy aches and headaches as a result of their child returning to school.
The psychological term for illnesses a child may develop when he or she is trying to avoid school is School Avoidance, or School Refusal. Symptoms may include nausea, fatigue, headaches and abdominal pain. According to Lori Crosby, Psy.D., Associate Professor, Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, in general, if children complain about stomachaches and other ailments and do not have symptoms of fever or a contagious illness, parents should feel comfortable sending them to school. “If the parent is unsure about whether to send a child to school, scheduling a visit with the child’s pediatrician to rule out a ‘true’ medical problem may be helpful. The parent may feel more confident sending the child to school with a clean bill of health” said Dr. Crosby.
Approximately 1-5 percent of children in the United States suffer from School Avoidance. An article in the American Family Physician states that School Avoidance/Refusal should be considered when a student will not go to school and experiences emotional distress of physical symptoms.
Dr. Crosby says there are several reasons why a child may begin to display characteristics of School Avoidance, among them are social problems such as being bullied or isolated; having problems with learning, taking tests, giving presentations; or the child being worried about family issues such as divorce, moves, deaths, parent’s job changes/losses. Many young children experience School Avoidance when they learn that they will be spending a lot of time away from their families and their familiar settings.
Dr. Crosby suggests that while School Avoidance is not out of the ordinary, parents can seek professional treatment if they want to help their child overcome fears associated with attending school. “Brief counseling with a psychologist or mental health professional may be helpful. In addition, parents should talk with school personnel. Psychologists are very familiar with such issues and can be very helpful with implementing a plan for the child,” she said.
Dr. Crosby says that children who have School Avoidance issues usually go back and forth between liking school and not liking it. “Often children with these histories wax and wane in that they have good phases and more avoidant phases,” she said. “Children usually start the year off with a great outlook about attending school, and after a brief honeymoon of high hopes and good attendance that may last for a few days to a few months, they slide back into some School Avoidance behaviors,” said Crosby.
Children may not outgrow their School Avoidance issues. However, Dr. Crosby says that there are some actions that parents can take to help solve the problem.
“The best approach is for parents to remain consistent with getting their child to school, setting limits, and establishing a regular routine,” she said. “The routine should be very predictable and consistent in the morning. Children benefit from having everything ready and set out before they go to sleep which reduces the morning rush,” Dr. Crosby says that this helps to reduce anxiety. She adds that parents also need to be aware of their own anxiety related to sending their child to school because children pick up on subtle messages and may use them to their advantage.
Back-to-School Health: Are Your Child’s Eyes Ready for the Classroom?Good vision can be directly correlated with a child’s learning ability. As much as 80% of the learning a child does occurs through his eyes and approximately 1 in 4 school-age children have some type of vision impairment.
Does your child have normal, healthy vision needed for classroom learning, or is there a problem that requires treatment by a pediatric ophthalmologist, optometrist or pediatrician?
“Generally, the earlier we diagnose vision issues, the better the outcome for the child,” said Dr. Mark Borchert, a pediatric ophthalmologist and the director of The Vision Center at Childrens Hospital Los Angeles and associate professor of ophthalmology and neurology at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California. “Professional eye examination tests not only measure distance of vision, but also how accurately the eyes focus and how well the eye muscles are working,” he said.
Below are four suggestions from The Vision Center for parents concerned about their child’s eyesight.
1. Don’t wait until your child enters kindergarten for his first complete eye exam. Pediatricians should perform a dilated eye exam to detect any serious eye problems within the first two months of life. Children are often more responsive to treatment when diagnosed early, so every child should have a comprehensive eye exam by age three. Some of the more serious eye diseases like amblyopia (lazy eye) or strabismus (crossed eyes) are correctable with eye patches or surgery if caught early. Once a child is seven or eight years old, the opportunity to correct the problem may have been lost, resulting in permanent vision problems.
2. Children that avoid books or reading may have a vision problem. Generally, preschoolers are eager to look at books and try and figure out words. Most children are reading by first grade. In general, most reading problems are not caused by vision problems. For instance, the child may have dyslexia, ADHD, or other learning differences and this may not be the result of poor vision. In these cases glasses, while helpful, will not fully solve the problem. However, if a child is having trouble learning to read, a comprehensive vision examination by a pediatric ophthalmologist or optometrist should be one of the tools used in making a diagnosis.
3. If your child is resistant to wearing glasses, point out those with familiar faces who also wear them. Defeating the stereotype that glasses are “dorky” is half the battle with school-aged children. Getting your child to wear glasses, without tearing them apart is the other. When children see relatives, cartoons or classmates wearing glasses, they are typically drawn to the attractiveness of someone they admire wearing them. If your child needs to wear glasses, you should allow the child to pick out the frames as it gives them a sense of ownership and pride.
4. Children age 10 and above can usually manage contact lenses. Children of all ages, even infants, can be fitted with contact lenses if their vision requires it. Under the age of 10, an adult will usually need to insert, remove and clean the lens. Many children over 10 can handle wearing and cleaning the contact lenses themselves.
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